INTRODUCTION:

Usrurb (lead) is one of the seven metals of antiquity (i.e gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, and mercury) which humans had identified and used in prehistoric times.¹ The lead-tin confusion pervades the ancient texts due to similar appearance and external characteristics. Sometimes abar, usrub, anuk, or anuq, is also used in a context where it means lead. The exclusive Arabic word rasas (derived from rassa, meaning solder) refers to both lead and tin. In later texts, the tin and lead were differentiated by using qualifying words such as rasas al-qalai or rasas abyaz for tin and rasas al-usrub or rasa aswad for black lead. Usrurb (lead) and its compounds have been used for medical purposes throughout human history.

For example, the use of galena (lead sulfide) as an eye preparation is reported in pre-Dynastic Egypt and by the ancient Indian civilisations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa some 3200 to 2800 B.C. The use of lead-tainted mortars, pestles, and medicament jars is also reported. The spermicidal and contraceptive actions of lead preparations have been reported by various ancient authors. The use of lead oxides for the treatment of ulcerous wombs, use of leaden instruments to dilate the cervix and use of leaden tubes for intrauterine medication to prevent postoperative adhesions is recommended in the Hippocratic text.² In the Arabian Gulf, the substance dominantly having lead oxide was used as traditional medicine by the name bint al dhahab (daughter of gold) for centuries. A small quantity is powdered, mixed with butter and sugar and given to the newborn and small children on the end of a finger for clearing the meconium and for stomach ailments.³ Owing to healing properties of lead and its compound, the Great Unani ophthalmologist Ali Bin Isa Al Kuhaal (1010 AD) has mentioned it by the name of Aabar and Isfidaj in his treatise Tazkira-tul-Kuhhaleen and advocated for ophthalmic use.⁴

Description of lead and its compounds in ancient Unani texts:

The famous Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides (40-90 AD) in fifth volume of his book Kitab al Hashaish (De Materia Medica) has mentioned lead and its compounds as; Molubdos Peplumenos for washed lead/Selenide of lead and Molybdos (Greek word for lead), Molubdos Kekaumenos for Burnt lead, Skoria Molubdou for lead slag, Litharguros for Litharge (monoxide of lead), Psimuthios for White lead (Cerussa) and put all of them in toxic category.⁵

The renowned Unani Scholar Ibn Sina (980-1037 AD) in the second book of his treatise Al Qanoon fil tibb has described lead and its compounds by the name of Aabar (lead), Anuk (burnt lead), Isfidaj (ashes of lead), Rasas (lead) and Suranj (red oxide of lead).⁶

The famous Andalusian physician, botanist, pharmacist and scientist Ibn al-Bayṭār (ابن البيطار‎) (1197–1248 AD) written a materia medica by the name of Kitāb al-Jāmiʿ li-Mufradāt al-Adwiya wa-l-Aghdhiya having detailed description of 1400 single drugs also included lead and its compound by various name; rasas has been used for both tin and lead, Ithmid has been described as stone having lead, isfidaj (safeda kashgari/white lead), Usrunj (red oxide of lead) and monoxide of lead has been described as Murdarsang.^7-9

Broadly lead and its compounds can be categorized as under:

1. Usrub (lead) and Aabar (burnt lead/ashes of lead)

2. Isfidaj (white lead)

3. Suranj (red oxide of lead)

4. Murdar sang (litharge/lead monoxide)

5. Ithmid (lead sulphide)

MATERIAL METHODS:

The present review includes the information available in Unani classical literature for its complete description viz. temperament, actions, therapeutic, and dosage uses etc. For History, pharmacological actions, toxicity and other aspects to prove the importance of Usrub and its compounds the information available in computerized databases such as Medline, PubMed, Ovid SP, Research gate, Google Scholar and Science-direct has been included.

Usrub (washed lead) and Aabar (burnt lead):

Vernacular names:

Arabic: Rasas, Rasas Aswad, Anuk Bangla: Sisa, English: Lead Hindi: Sisa, Persian: Usrub, Latin: Plumbum, Sanskrit: Seesaka; Naga, Turkish: kurşun Urdu: Sisa^{6,8,11-16,19,21,22}

Description:

Usrub has a watery substance which is condensed by coldness. Besides, it has moderate airiness and earthiness. According to Galen its moisture content is evidenced by the fact that it melts quickly and its weak constitution is indicative of its airiness. When left in a wet place, it grows in volume. It has an intense cooling effect on inflammations.⁶

In pure form, Usrub (lead) is soft, very malleable, dense, ductile, silvery-white or grayish metal. It can be scratched with a fingernail owing to its softness. It is resistant to corrosion and is a poor conductor of electricity. Due to its higher density it falls under the category of heavy metals. Lead in its elemental form rarely occurs in nature. Lead most commonly occurs as galena (lead sulfide) from which it is obtained by roasting. It most frequently occurs as carbonate (white lead ore).¹⁰

Occurrence:

Lead is found all over the world, however more than 50 percent of primary production of lead occurs in Australia, China and the United States. In India, lead mines are found at Rajasthan’s Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba and Rampura.²⁵

Preparation of washed lead and burnt lead:

For medicinal use Dioscorides has described the method to purify the Usrub in his treatise Kitab al hashaish. The purified Usrub is called Usrub Maghsool (washed lead). Similarly, the method of burning lead has also been mentioned. The burnt lead has been mentioned as Aabar.

Washed lead:

Two methods of washing the lead have been mentioned in the literature.

a. Put water into a lead mortar and beat it with a lead pestle until the water becomes black and muddy. Then strain it through a linen cloth, pour more water till all the dissolved may be strained. Repeat the procedure until no blackness remains on it. Then make tablets from it and put it in jars.

b. Sprinkle water onto clean lead, beat it in a stone mortar with a stone pestle or by hand, pouring on water little by little underhand. The blackness appears so it is thrown away and pour more water to wash again. Then allowed to settle they pour it out and form it into tablets immediately.^5,8

Burnt lead:

Two methods of burning the lead have been described in literature.

a. Put thin plates of lead into a new pot and sprinkle sulfur on them, and place layers of lead plates and sulfur until the pot is filled. Then start a fire underneath. Stir the kindled lead with an iron rod until it is perfectly turned into ashes. Then take it out from the fire. During burning your nostrils should be closed as the vapor may be harmful.

b. Put the thin lead plates into an unfired clay jar and seal the jar with soft clay and give it a little breathing place [hole]. Put it into a furnace or over coals and burn it. Some sprinkle Safeda (cerussa/ white lead) or barley on it instead of Kibreet (sulfur). Some place the lead plates on a sharp fire, and stir it around lustily with an iron rod until it turns to ashes.^5,8

Temperament:

Cold and Dry second degree^{6,8,11-16,19,21,22}

Actions: Mujaffif (Desiccant, Siccative), Qabiz (Constipative), Habis-ud-Dam (Styptic), Mughalliz-e-Mani (Inspissant to semen), Mumsik (Retentive), Mundamil-e-qurooh.^{6, 8, 12-16,1 9, 2,
22}

Therapeutic Uses:

Oral uses:

For oral use it has to be purified to remove its toxic effects. Orally it is used in the form of Kushta (calx). The Kushta Usrub is used to treat Nazf-al-Dam (Hemorrhage), Jiryan (Spermatorrhoea), Sailan ur Reham (leucorrhoea), Riqqat-e-Mani (Attenuated semen), Kasrat-e-ehtelam (excessive nocturnal emission) Humma (fever), zof-e-ama (weakness of intestine), amraz-e-chasm (eye diseases) and Ziabetus (diabetes).^{12-15, 21,
22, 26}

Local uses:

Inflammations and pimples: The local application of lead grounded with Roghan Badam is useful for hot inflammations, septic wounds and cancerous wounds. According to Ibn Sina the substance yielded by rubbing two pieces of lead against each other with some oil is useful for hot inflammation of genital organs, nawaseer (anal fistula) and cools them. It is applied on cancerous ulcers, scrofula (swollen glands), and ulcers of the joints. It dissolves the swollen glands. The levigated powder mentioned above and the burnt lead refined by washing is useful for malignant wounds, cancerous ulcers and ulcers of the joints.

Joints:

The application of levigated powder or ashes of lead on the twisted joints dissolve their swelling and are useful for the ulcers of the joints.

Ocular organs:

The washed burnt lead is useful for the ulcers of the eyes and similarly for dry conjunctivitis. The application of washed blackness obtained after rubbing lead on palms is useful for conjunctivitis and itching of eyes. Wash the lead till its black color disappears, then apply this as a collyrium for wounds of the eye.

Respiratory organs and chest:

The ashes of lead and pulverized powder of the lead are useful for the ulcers of the breast.

Excretory organs:

The local application of powdered lead and ashes of the lead are useful for piles. In consequence of its cold nature, an application of plaster of lead to the region of the loins and kidneys, stops frequent nocturnal emissions, libidinous dreams at night and pacifies the agitated sexual urge. Besides, the two substances are also useful for ulcers and swellings of the male sexual organs.^{6, 16, 19, 28}

Potent Action:

Mughalliz-e-Mani (Inspissant to semen)^{13-15, 21-23}

Dosage:

125 mg (Calx).^{13-15, 21-23}

Adverse Action:

According to Unani literature Usrub and Aabar can produce adverse effects on lungs.^{13-15, 21-23}

Correctives:

To counter the adverse effects of milk and honey has been recommended by Scholars.^{2,4, 11-20}

Important Formulations:

Kushta Usrub and Kushta Musallas¹⁴

Isfidaj (white lead)

Vernacular names: Arabic: Isfidaj Bangla: Safeda, English: White lead, Flake white, Basic Lead Carbonate, Hindi: Safeda, Persian: Safedab, Sapeda Arzir Latin: Cerussa, Urdu: Safeda^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
20-24}

Description:

It is one of the oldest artificially prepared soft heavy and water-insoluble white powder. White lead was the popular cosmetic among Greek and Roman ladies, they covered their faces with it. Unani Physicians prepared the Isfidaj by burning Qalai (tin) or Usrub (lead) or Jast (zinc). Actually, it is the ashes of metals mentioned earlier. The Isfidaj prepared by burning Qalai is known as Safeda Kashgari or Safeda Rumi. Isfidaj sourced from Kashgar city (Southern Xinjiang) of China is considered of the best quality. Another variety of Isfidaj is prepared by burning zinc which is generally available in India. Chemically, it is a mixture of lead carbonate and lead hydroxide with the chemical formula 2PbCO₃·Pb(OH)₂and is popularly known as basic lead carbonate.^11,12,17,27

Preparation of Isfidaj:

It is prepared by various methods:

a. Pour the Sirka (vinegar) into a broad-mouthed ceramic jar. Fasten the lead plates to the mouth of the jar with a little reed mat placed underneath. Put cover on the top so that the vinegar cannot evaporate before lead is dissolved, and falls down distilled. Strain out the lead from liquid vinegar. Put the strained lead (viscous stuff) into a jar and dry it in the sun. Then ground it in a hand mill. Repeat this process of grounding and scraping three or four times.

b. Fasten the bullrush mat towards the middle of the jar so that it touches the vinegar. Then cover the mouth of the jar with lead, seal it all up, and leave it alone for some days. Take off the cover to look in, if all lead is dissolved then repeat the procedures previously described. Knead it with vinegar and form tablets and dry in the sun. The Isfidaj prepared in the summer is white and considered to be more effective. In the winter season, it is dried with the help of furnaces, baths, or chimneys in place of sun and tablets are prepared.^5,7

Temperament:

Cold and Dry second degree.^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
20-24}

Action:

Habis-ud-Dam (Styptic), Qabiz (astringent), Mubarrid (Refrigerant), Mujaffif (Desiccant), Musakkin (Sedative) Mugharri (Glutinous), Mudammil Quruh (wound healer).^{6, 7, 11-15,
17, 20-24}

Therapeutic Uses:

According to Ibn Sina the lead processed with vinegar becomes highly rarefactive (density is reduced). This processed lead quickly reaches the deeper parts of the body.

Wounds and Skin ailments:

Its local use works as a sedative and astringent to protect irritated surfaces as in Surkh Bada (erysipelas), erythema and intertrigo etc. Isfidaj, incorporated in ointments, promotes the growth of (healthy) flesh, removes the decayed flesh and heals the wounds. Liniment of Isfidaj prepared with juice of Mako leaves (Solanum nigrum L.) and other medicines is beneficial in cases of boils, hemorrhage, hot swellings and in cases of burn from hot water or fire. Local application of a preparation made of Isfidaj, egg white and gum acacia on burn site will prevent scar marks.

Swellings:

It softens cold and hard swellings.

Headache:

local application of Isfidaj dissolved in vinegar and Roghan Gul (rose oil) on forehead relieves headache.

Eye ailments: Add rose oil to washed Isfidaj (with soft water multiple times) and expose it to sunlight for some days. Application of this dried powder as collyrium is useful for conjunctivitis and for pimples on the inner side of eye lids. Drops of solution of Isfidaj prepared with women's milk or egg white is also useful on earlier mentioned ailments.

Intestinal ailments:

Sometimes the Unani Scholars have used Isfidaj as an enema along with other intestinal drugs due to its Mugharri action.

Excretory organs:

Instillation of solution of Isfidaj with rose oil in male urethra is useful for healing of urethral or vesicular wounds and burning micturation.^{6, 7, 11,
17, 19}

Dosage:

Externally as per requirement, not recommended for oral use.

Potent Action:

Mudammil Qurooh (wound healer).^12-14,
21,29

Adverse Action:

Man-e-hamal (Contraceptives), produces Khunaq (diphtheria)^{6,7,11-15,17,20-24}

Correctives:

Anisoon (Pimpinella anisum L.), Badiyan (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), and Honey^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
20-24}

Important Formulations:

Marham kafoori, Marham siyah²⁴

Suranj (red oxide of lead)

Vernacular names:

Arabic: Usranj, Isranj, Usuranj Bangla: Sindur, English: Red lead, Minium, Red Oxide of Lead, Lead oxide, Hindi: Sindur, Persian: Siranj, Suranj, Latin: Plumbic oxidum rubrum, Sanskrit: Raktanag, Sindura, Naga Sambhava Urdu: Sindur^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
19, 21-23}

Description and History:

It is a bright red or orange-red granular crystalline powder having chemical formula as Pb₃O₄. Its Latin name Minium was derived from the name of river Minius of Iberia where it was first mined. In ancient Rome and the medieval period it was prepared by calcination of white lead and used as a red pigment in the production of illuminated manuscripts. The Iranian scholar, researcher, physician, alchemist Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi known as Rhazes in the west (865-925 AD) recognized the two oxides of lead, minium and litharge, as artificially prepared substances.^{11, 27, 30}

Red lead is one of the earliest artificially prepared pigments and is still in use. The Roman author, architect and engineer, Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (80–70 BC – 15 AD) reported that the red lead was first produced from lead white accidentally in a conflagration (fire). There has been a confusion in nomenclature between minium and cinnabar. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24–79), applied the name minium to a naturally occurring form of the pigment vermilion, cinnabar (mercuric sulfide) and he called red lead minium secondarium. Cinnabar was often adulterated with red lead due to similarity in color and the term minium was used for the mixture. The German mineralogist Georgius Agricola (1494 –1555 AD) in his book on mineralogy De re metallica reported that the name miniun gradually applied to red lead alone. The sindoor/ kumkum/ vermillion used by married Hindu women is adulterated with lead tetroxide, (Pb₃O₄, red lead) to give the deep red color^.31,32

Preparation of red lead:

It is prepared by heating white lead in an open jar. In another method powdered white lead kept in a deep iron jar is put on fire and stirred with a wood stick till it turns red. Chemically we can say that is prepared by oxidation of white lead.⁷

Temperament:

Cold and dry^{6, 7, 12-16, 19, 21,22}

Actions and therapeutic Uses:

It is Habis-ud-Dam (Styptic), Qabiz (astringent), and Mudammil Quruh (wound healer) drug and possesses some coldness. It is used as an ointment in cases of eczema, pustular eruptions, etc. Application of its ointment promotes the maturation and healing of boils, abscesses, all kinds of ulcers and wounds. Its liniment/ointment prepared with Roghan Zaitoon (olive oil) or Roghan Gul (rose oil) reduces the inflammation of wounds, clean, heal and removes the extra flash, foul smell of the wounds. In cases of burn it is applied in the form of a qairooti (a type of local application). Application of its enema prepared with charbi (animal fat) and Aabe Bartang (juice of Plantago lanceolata L) helps in healing of intestinal wounds. It prevents bleeding. Application of an ointment made of Suranj and powdered black pepper with butter is beneficial in chronic eczema.^{6, 7, 11-16, 18,
21-23}

Dosage:

Externally as per requirement, not recommended for oral use.

Potent Action:

Mudammil Qurooh (wound healer).^{12-15,
21, 29}

Adverse Action:

Toxic^{12-15, 21,29}

Correctives:

Roghaniyat (oils)^{12-15, 21, 29}

Substitute:

Safeda^{12-15, 21, 29}

Important Formulations:

Marham Sindoor³³, Roghan Chhajan, Marham Shalgham³⁴, Marham Quba³⁵, Roghan samaat Kusha Jadeed³⁶

Murdar sang (litharge/lead monoxide):

Vernacular names:

Arabic: Murdasanj, Martak English: Lead monoxide, Flowers of lead, Massicot, Litharge, Monoxide of Lead Hindi: Mudrasankha Murdosing Persian: Murdar sang, Murdahang, Murdasang Latin: Plumbic oxidum, Sanskrit: Mruddarasrnga Urdu: Murdasang.^{6, 7, 11-15,
17, 19, 21-23}

Description:

Murdarsang is heavy yellow to reddish-yellow stone occurring naturally and prepared artificially. The name Murdarsang (dead stone/Murdar means dead and sang means stone) was given owing to its coldness and dryness. The Murdarsang is prepared by Rasas (lead), Nuqra (silver) or tila (gold). The murdarsang prepared with gold is considered of good quality.¹⁸ According to Dioscorides, Murdarsang of Attica (the ancient District of Greece) is considered the best next to this is the Spanish, and that from Italy. The yellow glittering or golden coloured Murdarsang is considered best and called chrysitis. Quality wise, after chrystitis, the other variety obtained after air hits melted lead refining is considered good and known as argyritis or Fizzi, and the other variety obtained from silver is called calabritis.^5,9 The english name of Murdarsang i.e. Litharge derived from Greek world lithargyros, or ‘silver stone’ (lithos means stone and argyros means silver) was given by Dioscorides to the yellow-colored material obtained as a byproduct of silver extraction from argentiferous lead.²

Chemically, Murdarsang (litharge/PbO) is fused and crystalline monoxide of lead, obtained from the direct oxidation of molten metallic lead. Naturally, it is found at Greece, Laurion and in other oxidized lead deposits throughout the world. Whereas the massicot is the unfused monoxide of lead made by roasting white lead. Massicot naturally occurs as an oxidation product of galena and other lead minerals and is found in Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, and Romania. The litharge and massicot are structurally dimorphs and sometimes used interchangeably.²⁷

To improve the quality, litharge is either washed or made white. The Murdarsang Maghsool (washed litharge) is considered more light and cold in comparison to Murdarsang Ghair maghsool (unwashed litharge). The litharge is often made white by various methods. The white litharge is also known as Martak in Arabic. The white litharge is used in preparation of liniment and dusting powder to avoid blackness of organs.¹⁸

Washing of litharge:

Divide it into pieces the size of walnut, place these pieces on burning coals, and blow on until thoroughly fired. After cooling down the fire, wipe away the filth formed on it and store it in jars. Some douse it three times with vinegar or wine then burn it again, put it in jars. Sometimes it is washed like cadmia. By this method the litharge also becomes white.^5,9

Preparation of white litharge:

Take two pints (01pint=473ml of US) of argyritis or Fizzi litharge. Then break it into pieces the size of beans, and put into a new ceramic jar. Pour on water in the jar and add two pints of white wheat. Bind a handful of barley in a thin clean linen cloth, hang it from the handle of the ceramic jar, and boil it until the barley is broken. Then pour out the contents into a clean broad-mouthed plate, separate the wheat, and throw it away. Pour on water to wash the litharge sediment, and rub it strongly at the same time with your hands. Then dry it, and pound it in a Thebaean mortar, pouring on warm water until it has dissolved. Strain out the water, pound it again for a whole day. Pour on hot water in the evening and leave it. Next morning, strain the water, pour in more, and repeat this procedure three times a day upto seven days. Mix five teaspoonfuls of mineral salt in a pound of litharge, pour on warm water and beat it three times a day, strain out the old water and mix in new water each time. Even if it turns white pour on warm water until its saltiness disappears. Throw away the liquid and dry it in a very hot sun then put it in jars. In another way, beat an equal amount of salt and litharge in the sun with water continuously (replacing the water) until it becomes white.^5,9

Temperament:

Cold and dry^{6, 7, 12-16, 19, 21, 22}

Actions and therapeutic Uses:

It is Qabiz (astringent), Habis-ud-Dam (Styptic), Mubarrid (Refrigerant), Qatil-e-kirm Shikm (Vermicide) and Mujaffif (Desiccant). Astringent and detergent properties are mild in nature.

Cosmetic Use:

Local application of litharge along with rose oil removes the foul smell of armpit, gives fragrant odor to the body, prevents the abrasion of thighs and clears freckles, black marks and hematoma. Washed litharge removes the marks of smallpox and stops excessive perspiration.

Healing of Ulcers:

local application of paste made with vinegar or rose water is useful for unhealthy ulcers, prickly heat, eczematous eruptions. It promotes the healing of wounds.

Eye ailments:

The white and washed varieties of litharge are used in collyrium preparation for clearing the eye.

According to Ibn Sina, the oral intake of litharge is harmful and can cause dysuria. However, in our country women use litharge orally to the children in cases of diarrhoea and intestinal ulcers. To reduce its harmful effects, they used to store in clay-pots used for storing water. To expel the intestinal worms 1.75 gm white litharge with rose water orally is beneficial. ^{6,9,11,18,20,23}

As a Calx (Kushta):

Calx of litharge is useful in phlegmatic diseases, catarrh, cough, bronchial asthma, syphilis, gonorrhea, spermatorrhoea and blood dyscrasia.³⁷

Dosage:

Externally as per requirement. Not recommended for oral use. However, its calx dose is upto 125mg.³⁷

Potent Action:

Mudammil Qurooh (wound healer).^{12-15,
18, 20-23}

Adverse Action:

For intestine^{12-15, 18, 20-23}

Correctives:

Milk^{12-15, 18, 20-23}

Substitute:

Safeda kashgari, sindoor^{12-15, 18, 20-23}

Important Formulations:

Habbe Leemu, Marham Kharish Jadeed, Marham Dakhilyun^35, Safoof kharish³⁶

Ithmid (lead sulfide)

Vernacular names:

Arabic: Kohl, Hajar al Kohl, Ithmed (Ismad), English: Collyrium, Hindi: Anjan, Surmaka-pathar, Kala Surma Persian:Surma, Sang-e-Surma Sanskrit: Nilanjana (lead sulfide), Anjan, Varnag Urdu: Siyah Surma.^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
19, 21-23}

Description:

Ithmid is the chief ore of lead having bluish, grey and glittery appearance. It is also known as Galena. It is lustrous, highly brittle, made of layers, and having crumps when broken. Ithmid originated from Isfahan (Iran) is considered of good quality. It is of various colors e.g black, grey, reddish and white. White coloured surma is generally used as calx.^{6, 7, 11, 17}

Temperament:

Cold and Dry^{6, 7, 11-15, 17, 19, 21-23}

Action:

Qabiz (Constipative), Mujaffif (Desiccant), Muqawwi-e-Basar (Vision improving), Man-e-ufoonat (antiseptic), Habis-ud-Dam (Styptic), Mubarrid (febrifuge).^{6, 7, 11-15, 17, 19, 21-23}

Therapeutic Uses:

Cosmetic:

Powdered Ithmid is locally applied to eyelids and eyebrows to improve the personal appearance by women.

Healing of ulcers and wounds:

its local application removes the excessive flesh from wounds and ulcers and heals them. Local application of its powder with fresh fats prevents ulceration on burnt parts of the body.

Organs of the head:

It stops cerebral rhinorrhagia, originated from the meninges.

Eyes:

Its application on the eye is useful for improving eye-sight and treating ophthalmia, itching, redness, irritation, watering of eyes, shedding of eyelashes and in the initial stage of cataract. It protects the eyes and removes the filth.

Other organs:

Its application as a pessary, stops uterine bleeding. Local sprinkling of its powder stops bleeding of fresh wounds of external male genital organs. Its local application with suitable oil kills the body lice.^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
19, 21-23}

Potent Action:

Dafe Amraz e Chasm (prevents eye diseases) and Habis-ud-Dam (Styptic).^{6, 7, 11-15,
17, 19, 21-23}

Dosage:

Not recommended for oral use due to toxic effects. The white variety of surma is used orally in the form of Kushta (calx).

Adverse Action:

May be harmful for lungs, joints and voice.^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
19, 21-23}

Correctives:

To counter the toxicity, Kateera (Tragacanth gum), Shakar (cane sugar) and Aabe Dhania (Coriander juice) are recommended.^{6, 7, 11-15,
17, 19, 21-23}

Substitute:

In case of non-availability of surma, sang-e-Basri/Burnt

lead as a substitute may be used.^{6, 7, 11-15, 17,
19, 21-23}

Important Formulations:

Kohal-e-Basaliqoon Kabir, Kohal-e-Chashkham, Kohal-e-Mameeran, Shiyaf-e-Aswad, Shiyaf-e-Gharb, Shiyaf-e-Aqleemiya Quroohi, Shiyaf-e-Nasoor³³

Pharmacokinetics of Lead in human:

Lead is a non-essential element to the human body and found in at least 45 human tissues including vital organs. Lead enters the human body via three routes i.e Ingestion, Inhalation and dermal contact. The lead absorption through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is dependent on several factors i.e physical form of lead, the particle size of lead and the nutritional status of the individual. Lead may be absorbed directly through the respiratory tract. Elemental and inorganic lead i.e white lead (a lead carbonate compound), yellow lead (lead chromate, lead monoxide) or red lead (lead tetroxide) are not absorbed through intact skin. Distribution; the absorbed lead primarily distributed in three components i.e. Blood, Soft tissue (ie, liver, kidneys, lungs, brain, spleen, muscles, and heart), and Mineralizing tissues (bones and teeth). Approximately 90% of the total body load of lead is found in the skeleton. Ninety percent of the absorbed lead is cleared by the macrophages. Eighty to ninety of absorbed lead is excreted through feces, urine, sweat, milk, hair and nails.³⁸

Toxicity of lead in humans:

As per Centers for Disease Control of the United State the upper limits for blood lead level are: Adults; 10µg/dl (10µg/100g), Children; 3.5µg/dl. If these limits exceed the signs of poisoning may appear.³⁹ Lead does not have any physiological role in the human body. Due to its high affinity towards sulfhydryl groups it can exert adverse effects on multiple enzyme systems. It also has an inhibitory effect of cellular function requiring calcium. Higher concentration of blood lead level may result in encephalopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, hypertension, bone abnormalities and altered sexual functions ie. Reduced sperm counts and impaired sperm motility in males and increased infertility, stillbirths, and miscarriages in females.⁴⁰ The Government of India has set the upper limit of lead concentration in Indian Medicinal products upto 10ppm.⁴¹

CONCLUSION:

Herbo-mineral formulations are very popular in the Unani System of Medicine for the management of neuromuscular disorders, digestive disorders, urogenital disorders, hepatic disorders, malnutrition and different types of fever.^42-46 The researchers have developed quality standards of various Unani formulation eg Kushta Godanti, Sufoof-e-Hazim including development of spectroflourometric fingerprints of quinine.^47-49Some herbal products eg. Babchi and herbal tea have been clinically validated for vitiligo and urinary diseases.^50-51 The formulations containing Usrub and its compound are mainly used for the treatment of skin ailments, eye ailments and sexual ailments. Keeping in view of toxic effects of Usrub the Unani scholars have recommended it primarily for external use. For external use, it is made suitable through various processes i.e. washing or burning to reduce its toxic effects. For skin ailments its formulation may be converted into gel for better compatibility.⁵² Lead is one of heavy metals and improper intake can cause plumbism (lead toxicity). All the food items including water should contain prescribed limits for heavy metals.^53-56 The medicinal products should not contain more than 10 ppm lead. The present review will be helpful for researchers to further research regarding toxic effects and other aspects.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

None.

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Received on 08.03.2022 Modified on 18.06.2022

Asian J. Research Chem. 2022; 15(5):358-366.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-4150.2022.00064